Question and Answer free essay sample

Consider the following table of costs for the Winsome Widget Factory, which operates in a perfectly competitive market. The market price faced by this firm is $6. 00 per widget. a. Fill in the formula for Average Fixed Cost, Average Variable Cost, Average Total Cost, Marginal Cost, Total Revenue, Marginal Revenue, and Total Profit at the top of the column in the gray section within the table. b. Fill in the missing values for Total Fixed Cost, Total Variable Cost, Average Fixed Cost, Average Variable Cost, Average Total Cost, Marginal Cost, Total Revenue, Marginal Revenue, and Total Profit in the blue sections of the table. Explain. The slope of the total revenue curve is marginal revenue and the slope of the total cost curve is marginal cost. Economic profit (the difference between total revenue and total cost) is maximized where marginal revenue equals marginal cost. This is consistent with the marginal decision rule, which holds that a profit-maximizing firm should increase output until the marginal benefit of an additional unit equals the marginal cost. We will write a custom essay sample on Question and Answer or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The marginal benefit of selling an additional unit is measured as marginal revenue. Finding the output at which marginal revenue equals marginal cost is thus an application of our marginal decision rule. To use the marginal decision rule in profit maximization, the firm produces the output at which marginal cost equals marginal revenue. Economic profit per unit is price minus average total cost; total economic profit equals economic profit per unit multiplied by the quantity. If price falls below average total cost, but remains above average variable cost, the firm will continue to operate in the short run, producing the quantity where MR = MC doing so minimizes its losses. If price falls below average variable cost, the firm will shut down in the short run, reducing output to zero. The lowest point on the average variable cost curve is called the shutdown point. So Winsome Widgets Marginal Revenue is at 60 no matter what output is at, so at output level 50 the MR=MC, and as the marginal decision rule applies at this point. f. Is Winsome Widgets in long-run equilibrium? Explain. First consider the definition of long-run equilibrium: All firms are maximizing profits. No firm has incentive to enter or exit, because all firms are earning zero economic profit. Price is such that QS  = QD. (Output Supply equals Output In other terms that means in an  Increasing Cost (time of an) Industry, an increase in input demand (anticipation of when people get greedy for something) by firms in the industry causes an increase in input prices (firms sale price to break even) and thereby an increase in average production costs. Also, at Long Run equilibrium, profits of all firms in the industry are zero and so no firms are entering or exiting the market. Therefore, Winsome Widgets is not at long run equilibrium because the latest (most current) output is 100. Output levels 40 through 59 would be considered in the state of Long Run equilibrium level. Everything before/after that range isn’t eligible for that. Task 2: Given a numeric production schedule, you will calculate profit and make decisions about short-run profitability to answer questions relating to your calculations. Jerry’s Lock Shop is a perfectly competitive firm, and Jerry is operating at his level of output, which maximizes profit. He can change locks for 20 different customers per day and charges each customer $35 for each lock. His total cost of changing locks is $800 and his fixed cost is $160. Answer the following questions. For each question, show the formula and the calculation as well as the final answer. a. What is Jerry’s marginal cost? Explain how you arrived at that answer. Fixed Cost is $160/20 customers= AFC of 8 If ATC=AFC+AVC, Then AVC=ATC-AFC or 40-8= AVC of 32 TC 800/20 (Q) customers= ATC of 40 shared by the 20 customers he services. Answered because the more customers or output there is sharing of his TC the better off his business is. However if he cannot make positive math alone then he cannot teach and is unadvisable to continue losing money. Firing him and shutting down might be a good idea as well. Arrival is logical, if one man makes -100 for business in one day, then 2 men would be worse, especially being taught skills by someone who cannot make enough alone.

Give a critical account with examples of the strategies available to the translator to deal with culturally specific items, which arise, in translation. The WritePass Journal

Give a critical account with examples of the strategies available to the translator to deal with culturally specific items, which arise, in translation. Introduction Give a critical account with examples of the strategies available to the translator to deal with culturally specific items, which arise, in translation. IntroductionDeterministic machine translationTable 1. Conservation Strategies   Table 2. Substitution Strategies BIBLIOGRAPHYRelated Introduction It is commonly agreed that the act of translation involves the conveyance of a message from one language to another, however, as Komissarov states,   â€Å"Translation from language to language is ipso facto translation from culture to culture† (1991, p.12). Hatim and Mason’s description of translation agrees with this opinion stating that the message must cross â€Å"cultural and linguistic boundaries† (1997, p. 1) in order to be clearly understood, while George Bernard Shaw’s[1] much referenced comment that â€Å"England and America are two countries separated by the same language† gives us a clear indication that, when it comes to translation, knowledge of language is not enough and an appreciation of culture and customs is paramount. Deterministic machine translation A  notorious for missing the point and the errors that are thrown up obvious, and often comical, in the target language such as the original Chinese translation of the Kentucky Fried Chicken slogan finger-lickin good which read eat your fingers off (Wolter, 2010). Culler states, â€Å"If language were simply a nomenclature for a set of universal concepts, it would be easy to translate from one language to another. One would simply replace the French name for a concept with the English name.† (cited in Baker, 1992, p. 10). This circumstance rarely presents itself and lack of equivalence, especially in the case of culture-specific words and concepts, is one of the main challenges faced by the translator. It is particularly evident within the realm of literary translation where the source-language culture plays a significant role and the emphasis is on recreating a piece of writing that is â€Å"true to the original, as well as being equally enchanting† (G. Paul, 2009, p .1). The translator must therefore not only have a good knowledge of both languages and cultures but a set of tried and trusted strategies to employ to overcome difficulties in transferring cultures within literary translation. This essay will concentrate on literary translation, with an emphasis on translation strategies available to deal with areas of cultural relevance within children’s literature. It will focus on the novel Le Petit Nicolas, (Goscinny Sempà ©, 2007) and its translation Nicholas (Goscinny Sempà ©, 2005); a book full of culture-specific phrases and concepts, which will offer an insight into the challenge of translating from â€Å"culture to culture† (Komissarov, 1991, p.12). To review the author’s processing of culturally specific items and develop a schema of success and failure that meaning can be drawn from, Javier Franco Aixel’s model of strategies available to the translator when translating items of cultural relevance will be used (1996, pp 52-77). The first step in this assessment must be to define what constitutes an item of cultural significance. As Aixel points out, it is easy to identify more common culturally specific words, such as personal and place names, however, an overall explanation of cultural specificity is in itself rather challenging as â€Å"everything is culturally produced, beginning with language itself.† (1996, p. 57). For instance, Aixel gives the example of translating the word â€Å"lamb† from the Bible for the Eskimo people; while this would not pose a problem to a source culture (SC) where this animal is known as having connotations of being helpless and sacrificial, it would for a SC where the animal is either completely unknown or unknown in that capacity (ibid, pp. 57-58). Aixel terms an area of cultural significance as a ‘culture-specific item’ (CSI), which he defines as: â€Å"Those textually actualized items whose functions and connotations in a source text involve a translation problem in their transference to a target text, whenever this problem is a product of the non-existence of the referred items or of its different intertextual status in the cultural system of the readers of the target text.† (ibid, p. 58) This essay will use Aixel’s definition of ‘CSIs’, which are anything linked to the SC that either does not exist in the target culture (TC) or carries a different meaning in that culture, when identifying areas of cultural relevance within Le Petit Nicolas. While this definition makes it possible to identify CSIs within a given text, it is worth noting that a CSI, like language and culture themselves, is liable to change; Aixel states that â€Å"objects, habits or values once restricted to one community come to be shared by others† (1996, p. 58). It is possible to extrapolate Aixela’s theory further than this as the evolution of cultural significance can also affect a single language, for example, ‘car crash’ previously just another way of saying ‘motoring accident’, was recently admitted into the Oxford English Dictionary carrying entirely different cultural connotations of celebrity misadventure (Alleyne, 2008 I pinched th is from the 2011 inclusions..) . It is therefore important to remain flexible in identifying and handling CSIs. With a definition of a CSI it is possible to concentrate on the strategies available for translating them. Aixel splits his strategies for dealing with CSIs into two main categories – ‘Conservation’ and ‘Substitution’ (see Tab. 1 2) (1996, pp. 61- 65). The strategies within the category of   ‘Conservation’ focus on preserving the CSI in the TT in some way and therefore support Schleiermacher’s notion of ‘Foreignizing’ whereby the translator emphasises cultural differences from the ST in the TT (in Venuti, 2008, p. 20); conversely, ‘Substitution’ strategies aim at replacing the source-culture item with one from the TC and therefore correspond to the contrasting view of ‘Domesticating’ the TT (Ibid, p. 18), and Nida’s theory of ‘Dynamic Equivalence’ which places the focus on the target reader and thus the TC over that of the SC (2000, p.156). The general consensus at the p resent time, as put forward by Gill Paul, is that a good literary translation must â€Å"reflect cultural differences, while drawing parallels that make it accessible [†¦]. It should be read by readers in its new language with the same enthusiasm and understanding as it was in the old.† (2009, p. 1). Both ‘Foreignization’ and ‘Dynamic Equivalence’ place unnecessary limitations on the literary translator and hence the TT and, if followed to the letter, would not produce Paul’s ‘good literary translation’. Therefore, in incorporating an element of each theory, Aixel’s strategies (listed below) strike the right balance: Table 1. Conservation Strategies   Repetition Straight transference of CSI from ST to TT. Orthographic Adaptation Transliteration or transcription of CSI from ST to TT. Linguistic (non-cultural) translation Using a target language version, which is based on pre-existing translation and can still be recognised as belonging to the source culture. Extratextual gloss One of above strategies plus addition of information in form of footnote, brackets etc. Intratextual gloss One of above strategies plus addition of information in main body of text. Table 2. Substitution Strategies Synonymy Use of a synonym to avoid repetition of a CSI on stylistic grounds. Limited universalization Use of another CSI from source culture to replace the more incomprehensible one in ST. Absolute universalization Replacing CSI with a neutral reference, thus removing any exoticism. Naturalization Replacing CSI with a CSI from the target culture. Deletion Removing all elements of CSI for ideological or stylistic reasons. Autonomous Creation Adding a cultural reference to TT that is not present in ST. The data in Tables 1 2 are from Translation, Power, Subversion (pp.61-70) by R. lvarez and M. C.-. Vidal, eds.(1996), Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Viewing the ST (Goscinny, 2007) with the strategies outlined above we can start to identify thematic CSIs that cause issues for the target TT and would likely cause unnecessary confusion. Translation of the French children’s names was a particular challenge; Aixel generally advocates ‘Conservation’ strategies of ‘Repetition’ or ‘Orthographic adaptation’ (Tab.1) for dealing with names (1996, pp. 61-62), however with French names, there is the obvious issue of pronunciation such as with the Eudes and Joachim. While pronunciation is not a necessity when reading, it does aid character recollection and thus the ability to emphasise with a character. In addition to pronunciation, the names also carry underlying connotations and stereotypes such as popularity, whether they are modern or old-fashioned and what type of person the name evokes in the imagination that would not transfer to the TT. While elements of these issues may be overcome by the fact that in the ST there already appears to be what Aixel terms ‘Intratextual gloss’ (Tab. 1) in the form of descriptions of the characters, the issues concerning pronunciation highlight a weakness in the strategies of ‘Repetition’ and ‘Orthographic adaptation’. This weakness calls for the translator to be sensitive to external factors affecting translation decisions. Aixel terms these factors as ‘Supratextual’ variables, which include the genre of the ST, the translation brief and the intended audience (1996, pp. 65-66). The translation by Anthea Bell of Le Petit Nicolas was undertaken in 1978, when translation norms looked to adhere to viewpoints such as Nida’s ‘Dynamic Equivalence’ while attempting to â€Å"produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original† (Newmark, 1981, p39). The reference to th e ‘readers’ above is an important one; In Principles of Correspondence, Nida states that the translator needs to understand the audience in terms of their ‘decoding ability’ and ‘potential interest’ (in Venuti, 2000, p. 155). Le Petit Nicolas is a classic piece of children’s literature that is enjoyed by young children and adults alike. While this book is enjoyed by an adult audience, the main readership would fall into Nida’s category of   â€Å"The capacity of children, whose vocabulary and cultural experiences are limited;† (in Venuti, 2000, p. 155); this indicates that Aixel’s ‘Conservation’ strategies of ‘Repetition’ or ‘Orthographic adaptation’ for dealing with names, would not be suitable here. In order to overcome this, the ‘Substitution’ strategy ‘Limited universalization’ (Tab. 2) could be employed, which would have made it possible to keep French names without losing any understanding on behalf of the target readers; for example changing ‘Eudes’ to ‘Edouard’ or ‘Joachim’ to ‘Jà ©rà ´me’. This strategy would be more in tune with today’s translation norms and would fulfil Paul’s ideal of a good translation that â€Å"allows a reader to experience first hand a different world – hearing the sounds, tasting local fare, seeing the sights† (2009, p.55). Translator Anthea Bell uses English names in place of the French ST versions and this approach corresponds to substitution strategy of ‘Naturalization’ (Tab. 2). The choice to remove all elements of French from the names is a bold one; ‘Naturalization’ is rarely used in literature, however it was once a common strategy for translating children’s stories (Aixel, 1996, p. 63) and this, along with the above mentioned supratextual factors, may have influenced this decision. While ‘Repetition’ proved inappropriate in translating Christian names, it would be possible to preserve elements of the SC in the TT by using this strategy for other CSIs. There are a number of references in the ST to food items specific to French culture; these include ‘pain au chocolat’, ‘Camembert’, ‘Roquefort’ and ‘frites’. Aixel states that â€Å"in the Western World there is a clear trend [†¦] towards maximum acceptability [†¦] towards ‘reading as an original’† (Ibid, p. 54); this sentiment promotes the use of ‘Conservation’ strategies such as ‘Repetition’ – ‘pain au chocolat’ to ‘pain au chocolat’ and ‘Linguistic (non-cultural) translation’ – ‘frites’ to ‘French fries’. These strategies definitely have their appeal in today’s society where globalisation has meant that food items such as ‘pain au chocolat’ and ‘French fries’ are readily available in our shops; however, these terms   may not have been suitable in the late seventi es when the ST was translated – again this indicates that words change their meaning and distribution over time and to quote Aixel once more, â€Å"objects, habits or values once restricted to one community come to be shared by others† (1996, p. 58). Lack of availability and hence knowledge about French food may be the reason behind Bell’s decisions in her era, which once again correspond to Aixel’s ‘Substitution’ strategies of ‘Limited universalization’ for ‘pain au chocolat’ where it was translated as ‘chocolate croissant’ (something entirely different in today’s supermarkets) and ‘Naturalization’ for ‘frites’ which became ‘chips’. While both ‘Limited universalization’ and ‘Naturalization’ are perfectly valid strategies for translating CSIs such as food items, their overuse will eventually lead to ‘Domestication’ of th e ST (Schleiermacher in Venuti, 2008, p.18), which is not in line with Paul’s description of ‘a good literary translation’ (2009, p. 55). ‘Repetition’ of Camembert and Roquefort, which appear in the ST as part of an amusing tale between two of the characters who are trying to recall the fable The Fox and the Crow (ST, pp. 45-48, TT, p. 34), would clearly correspond with Paul’s ideal of allowing the target reader to personally experience the ST world (2009, p.55), however, it may lead to a lack of understanding due to the nature of the target audience who probably do not have knowledge of such delicacies as Camembert or Roquefort. In the fable by Aesop the crow has a piece of cheese in its beak (Crow and the Fox, n.d.) and in the ST the two boys are arguing over whether this piece of cheese is Camembert or Roquefort: â€Å"[†¦] d’un corbeau qui tenait dans son bec un roquefort.[†¦]  Ã‚ «Ã‚  Mais non, a dit Alceste, c’à ©tait un camembert.  Ã‚ » (ST, pp. 45-48) [of a crow who had in his beak a roquefort [†¦] â€Å"but no, said Alceste, it was a camembert†] ‘Limited universalization’ choosing a more general French cheese, or ‘Naturalization’ using an English cheese, could solve this problem, however, the next remark made by one of the boys highlights the need for an understanding of the CSI’s treatment in the ST and how this affects the choice of strategies (1996, p. 69-70):  «Ã‚  Pas du tout, a dit Rufus, le camembert, le corbeau il n’aurait pas pu le tenir dans son bec, à §a coule et puis à §a sent pas bon  !  Ã‚ » (ST, p. 48) [Not at all, said Rufus, the camembert, the crow would not be able to hold it in his beak, it runs, and then it doesn’t smell good!] Bell opts for ‘Repetition’ in the TT which is one of the only times that she uses a ‘Conservation’ strategy (1996, pp. 61-62) and for this reason the CSIs feel out of place within a TT that has, for the most part, been domesticated. This observation underlines the need for an equal balance in the use of ‘Conservation’ and ‘Substitution’ strategies when translating CSIs. The possible use of the ‘Conservation’ strategies ‘Extratextual’ and ‘Intratextual gloss’ (Tab. 1) emerged when translating the CSI in the form the job title ‘le surveillant’. ‘Le surveillant’ is a term ‘restricted to the source culture’ (Aixel, 1996, p. 56) and, at the time of Le Petit Nicolas, it was an adult in charge of study and discipline (nowadays a ‘surveillant’ is more likely to be a fellow student and not in charge of discipline equivalent to a monitor or prefect in a British school). As there is no linguistic equivalent in the target language this poses a problem, which could be overcome for the translator wanting to keep an element of the SC in the TT by using such ‘Conservation’ strategies: â€Å"monsieur Dubon, le surveillant, nous a conduit en classe† (ST, p. 23) â€Å"Mr Dubon, the surveillant (the person in charge of study and discipline in a school), led us into the classroom† (My translation using ‘Extratextual gloss’) â€Å"Mr Dubon, who is the school’s surveillant in charge of discipline, led us into the classroom† (My translation using ‘Intratextual gloss’) These approaches conserve the CSI in the TT; however, they interrupt the flow of the text and are therefore not ideal options for literary translation. This draws attention to a need for the translator to decide between which is more important: the fluidity of the TT or the preservation of the cultural elements present in the ST. Analysis of the TT has shown that, as with the Christian names, Bell opts to maintain the flow of the TT and chooses ‘Naturalization’ here using ‘one of the other teachers’ (TT, p. 17). While this does not interrupt the flow of the text, it is not correct and does lead to some confusion as to why their class teacher allows ‘one of the other teachers’ to constantly interrupt lessons and discipline her pupils. The nickname for the ‘surveillant’ in Le Petit Nicolas is ‘Le Bouillon’ a type of broth usually made with meat and vegetables like a stew. It may be possible to use the ‘Conservation’ strategy of ‘Linguistic (non-cultural) translation’ (Tab. 1) for ‘Le Bouillon’ renaming it ‘stew’, however, what Aixel terms as ‘intratextual’ factors relating to this CSI, namely how the CSI is treated within the ST itself such as its cultural consideration, its significance and replication will mould how it is dealt with in translation (1996, pp 69-70); the reason why the boys use this nickname would make a CSI translated using ‘Linguistic (non-cultural) translation’ confusing for the target reader: â€Å"On l’appelle comme à §a, parce qu’il dit tout le temps :  «Ã‚  Regardez-moi dans les yeux  Ã‚ », et dans le bouillon il y a des yeux.† (ST, p. 23) [one calls him like that because he says all the time ‘look me in the eyes’, and in stew there are eyes] This reason is quite clearly culturally specific; it refers to the fat in the broth that gathers in circles on top of the water, which in French culture are seen as ‘eyes’. As this is not something that the target reader would instantly think of, it is not possible to use any of Aixel’s ‘Conservation’ strategies here without having to include a lengthy and disruptive explanation within the TT. In line with Bell’s other translation decisions for names, the terms have been ‘naturalised’ and the CSI has become ‘Old Spuds’, which allows the reason to remain the same as in the ST albeit with the reader enjoying a differing mental image. While ‘Naturalization’ can be seen to have gone against the ideal of a ‘good literary translation’ in domesticating the CSI, it is sometimes a necessity in order to preserve as much of the content of ST as possible. Another challenging CSI is a confluence of two of the above themes in Le Petit Nicolas, namely food and culture. ‘le goà »ter’ (an after-school snack usually given at 4pm) is a ritualistic snack that forms part of the French way of life and should not be confused with the evening meal, which is served much later than in the UK. For this reason one could use a ‘Conservation’ strategy such as ‘Intratextual gloss’ (Tab. 1) however, as previously discussed this strategy impedes the flow of literary texts and therefore the ‘Substitution’ strategy ‘Absolute universalization’ (Tab. 2) may be a better option:  «Ã‚  j’ai pas envie d’à ªtre en retard pour le goà »ter  ! (ST, p. 37) â€Å"I don’t want to be late for our after-school snack which is usually given at 4pm!† (my translation using ‘intratextual gloss’) â€Å"I don’t want to be late for snack-time!† (my translation using ‘Absolute universalization’) Interestingly, Bell has again employed the ‘Substitution’ strategy ‘Naturalization’ to translate this CSI (1996, p. 63): ‘I don’t want to be late for tea!’ (TT, p.27) While this option may have been suitable when the translation was published, it would now lead the target reader to believe that the children are having their evening meal. The ‘Substitution’ strategy of ‘Deletion’ (Tab. 2) is preserved for CSIs that are considered â€Å"unacceptable on ideological or stylistic grounds† (Aixel, p. 64). Aixel states that the â€Å"nature of the CSI† in terms of any pre-established translations it may have, its transparency, its ideological status and what culture it refers to all influence how it is treated in translation (1996, pp. 68-69); an area in the ST that this would be considered is within the story Djodjo regarding the English student (ST, pp 59-65). On being introduced to the English student George the French boys notice his teeth and comments on them: â€Å"Il a souri et nous avons vu qu’il a des tas de dents terribles.  «Ã‚  Le veinard, a dit Alceste, [†¦] avec des dents comme à §a, il doit mordre des drà ´les de morceaux  !  Ã‚ » (ST, p. 59) [he smiled and we saw that he had loads of awful/huge teeth. â€Å"Lucky thing, said Alceste [†¦] with teeth like that must be able to eat lots of things!†] This stereotypical image of poor English dental care is specific to the SC and may offend the target audience if it were to be kept in the TT. If Kelly’s opinion in her work on the ideological implications of translation, that the translator â€Å"she should be aware of the pitfalls of stereotypical images, and attempt to avoid them† is to be adhered to then ‘Deletion’ would be an appropriate strategy here (1998, p. 63). However, this strategy involves major changes to the ST and places the importance of target-audience views above that of the message of the ST and should only be used if the translator sees no other working solution. Analysis of the TT shows that Bell also uses ‘Deletion’ for this CSI and goes further in changing the CSI by using ‘Autonomous creation’ – changing the name of the student to a Dutch name, and thus his nationality from English to Dutch (1996, p.64). Le Petit Nicolas gives us a wide range of CSI’s in action and permits the evaluation of Aixel’s strategies in parochial areas such as naming conventions, cuisine and social structures and stereotypes. All of these challenge and inevitably force a course of action and stylistic choice from the translator. The strategies employed in Le Petit Nicolas have not always produced the best fit or proved the most enduring, e.g. ‘chocolate croissants’, but they clearly show that translation is an art not a science as indeed it should be in the realm of literary translation.  Ã‚   ; I It is often factors outside of the ST that will have a bearing of the efficacy of each strategy.   The analysis of the items of cultural significance and the strategies used to translate them in the essay epitomises the quintessential tensions of translation. While it can be helpful that translation theorists such as Aixel create models for translation that should be followed a priori, it is often not the case that these models can be taken off the shelf and applied to all translations. Sometimes to coin a business expression the real test comes when ‘the rubber hits the road’ and the need for pragmatic responses to CSIs gives Bell and all involved in translation a raison d’à ªtre and a place that currently cannot be filled easily by mechanistic rule sets. BIBLIOGRAPHY Alleyne, R. (2008) Custard Cream is New Entry in Concise Oxford English Dictionary. The Telegraph. Retrieved May 15, 2011, from website telegraph.co.uk/news/2235642/Custard-Cream-is-new-entry-in-Concise-Oxford-English-Dictionary.html Aixà ¨la, J.F. (1996). Culture-specific Items in Translation. In R. lvarez and M. C.-. Vidal, eds. Translation, Power, Subversion (pp.52-78). [Electronic version]. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Baker, M. (1992). In other words: A coursebook on translation. London: Routledge Hatim, B. Mason, I. (1997) The Translator as Communicator. [Electronic version]. London: Routledge Kelly, D. (1998) Ideological implications of translation decisions: positive self- and negative other presentation. [Electronic version]. Quaderns. Revista de traduccià ³ 1, 57-63 Komissarov, V.N. (1991). Language and Culture in Translation: Competitors or Collaborators? [Electronic version]. TTR : traduction, terminologie, rà ©daction, 4, (1) p. 33-47. Retrieved from http://id.erudit.org/iderudit/037080ar Newmark, P. (1981). Approaches to Translation. [Electronic version]. Oxford: Pergamon Nida, E. (1964). Principles of Correspondence. In L.Venuti, ed. The Translation Studies Reader (pp. 153-167). London: Routledge Paul, G. (2009). Translation in Practice: a symposium. Champaign and London: Dalkey Archive Press Venuti, L. (2008) The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation. (2nd edition). [Electronic version]. London: Routledge Venuti, L. (ed.) (2000) The Translation Studies Reader. London: Routledge Wolter, L. (2010, March 9) Doing Business in the here and now. Las Cruces Sun-News (New Mexico). Retrieved May 15, 2011 from lexisnexis.com/uk/nexis/ surveillant, e. (2007). In Collins French Dictionary Plus. Retrieved from credoreference.com/entry/collinsfrench/surveillant_e Le Bouillon, http://forum.wordreference.com/showthread.php?t=1033979 The Crow and the Fox aesopfables.com/cgi/aesop1.cgi?jdlfi2msi3m.jpg

George Washingtons First Inauguration

George Washington's First Inauguration The inauguration of George Washington as the first President of the United States on April 30, 1789, was a public event witnessed by a cheering crowd. The celebration in the streets of New York City was also a very serious event, however, as it marked the  beginning of a new era. After struggling with the Articles of Confederation in the years following the Revolutionary War, there had been a need for a more effective federal government and a convention in Philadelphia in the summer of 1781 created the Constitution, which established the office of president. George Washington had been selected as president of the Constitutional Convention and, given his great stature as a national hero, it seemed obvious he would be elected as the first President of the United States. Washington  easily won the first presidential election in late 1788 and when he took the oath of office on the balcony of Federal Hall in lower Manhattan months later, it must have seemed to the citizens of the young nation that a stable government was finally coming together. As Washington stepped out onto the balcony of the building, many precedents would be created. The basic format of that first inauguration more than 225 years ago is essentially repeated every four years. Preparations for the Inauguration After delays in counting votes and certifying the election, Washington was officially informed that he had been elected on April 14, 1789. The secretary of the Congress traveled to Mount Vernon to deliver the news. In an oddly formal meeting, Charles Thomson, the official messenger, and Washington read prepared statements to each other. Washington agreed to serve. He left for New York City two days later. The trip was long, and even with Washingtons carriage (a luxury vehicle of the time) it was arduous. Washington was met by crowds at every stop. On many nights he felt obligated to attend dinners hosted by local dignitaries, during which he was toasted effusively. After a large crowd welcomed him in Philadelphia, Washington was hoping to arrive in New York City (the location of the inauguration as D.C. had not yet become the nations capital) quietly. He didnt get his wish. On April 23, 1789, Washington was ferried to Manhattan from Elizabeth, New Jersey, aboard an elaborately decorated barge.  His arrival in New York was a massive public event. A letter describing the festivities that appeared in newspapers mentioned a cannon salute was fired as Washingtons barge passed the Battery at the southern tip of Manhattan. A parade formed consisting of a cavalry troop formed when he landed and also included an artillery unit, military officers, and the Presidents Guard composed of Grenadiers of the First Regiment. Washington, along with city and state officials and followed by hundreds of citizens, marched to the mansion rented as the Presidents House. The letter from New York published in the Boston Independent Chronicle on April 30, 1789, mentioned that flags and banners were displayed from buildings, and bells were rung. Women waved from windows. During the following week, Washington was kept busy holding meetings and organizing his new household on Cherry Street. His wife, Martha Washington, arrived in New York a few days later accompanied by servants which included enslaved people brought from Washingtons Virginia estate at Mount Vernon. The Inauguration The date for the inauguration was set for April 30, 1789, a Thursday morning. At noon a procession began from the Presidents House at Cherry Street. Led by military units, Washington and other dignitaries walked through several streets to Federal Hall. Keenly aware that everything he did that day would be seen as significant, Washington chose his wardrobe carefully. Though he was mostly known as a soldier, Washington wanted to emphasize that the presidency was a civilian position, and he did not wear a uniform. He also knew his clothes for the big event had to be American, not European. He wore a suit made of American fabric, a brown broadcloth made in Connecticut that was described as resembling velvet. In a small nod to his military background, he wore a dress sword. After reaching the building on the corner of Wall and Nassau Streets, Washington passed through a formation of soldiers and entered the building. According to an account in a newspaper called The Gazette of the United States and published on May 2, 1789, he was then introduced to both houses of Congress. That was, of course, a formality, as Washington would have already known many of the members of the House and Senate. Stepping out onto the gallery, a large open porch on the front of the building, Washington was administered the  oath of office by the Chancellor of the State of New York, Robert Livingston. The tradition of presidents being sworn in by the Chief Justice of the United States was still years in the future for a very good reason: the Supreme Court would not exist until September 1789, when John Jay became the first Chief Justice. A report published in a newspaper (The New York Weekly Museum) on May 2, 1789, described the scene which followed the administration of the oath of office: The Chancellor then proclaimed him THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES, which was followed by the instant discharge of 13 cannon, and loud repeated shouts; THE PRESIDENT bowing to the people, the air again rang with their acclamations. He then retired with the two Houses [of Congress] to the Senate Chamber... In the Senate chamber, Washington delivered the first inaugural address. He had originally written a very long speech which his friend and adviser, future president James Madison, suggested he replace. Madison drafted a much shorter speech in which Washington expressed typical modesty. Following his speech, Washington along with new vice president John Adams and members of Congress walked to St. Pauls Chapel on Broadway. After a church service, Washington returned to his residence. The citizens of New York, however, continued celebrating. Newspapers reported that illuminations, which would have been elaborate slide shows, were projected on buildings that night. A report in the Gazette of the United States  noted that illuminations at the homes of the French and Spanish ambassadors were particularly elaborate. The report in The Gazette of the United States described the end of the great day: The evening was fine- the company innumerable- every one appeared to enjoy the scene, and no accident cast the smallest cloud upon the retrospect.

Risk Management Systems Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Risk Management Systems - Essay Example In practice, the process can be very difficult and balancing between risks with a high probability of occurrence but lower loss versus a risk with high loss but lower probability of occurrence can often be mishandled. Intangible risk management identifies a new type of risk - a risk that has a 100% probability of occurring but is ignored by the organization due to a lack of identification ability. For example, when deficient knowledge is applied to a situation, a knowledge risk materializes. Relationship risk appears when ineffective collaboration occurs. Process-engagement risk may be an issue when ineffective operational procedures are applied. These risks directly reduce the productivity of knowledge workers, decrease cost effectiveness, profitability, service, quality, reputation, brand value, and earnings quality. Intangible risk management allows risk management to create immediate value from the identification and reduction of risks that reduce productivity. Risk management also faces difficulties in allocating resources. This is the idea of opportunity cost. Resources spent on risk management could have been spent on more profitable activities. Again, ideal risk management minimizes spending while maximizing the reduction of the negative effects of risks. In Norfolk Sentara, they have developed different programs to lessen the risks associated with diseases and they have implemented these programs efficiently that they have received recognition for their patient safety assurance. Norfolk Sentara addressed the needs and safety of their patients as if they were their own relatives. They work hard to provide the best patient care possible and also to provide treatment plans that will help alleviate the patients' pain and sickness.  Ã‚  

Perfomance standards Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Perfomance standards - Essay Example The historical overview of Westin St. Francis was traced to as early as the 1902s which make the hotel more than 112 years to date (The Westin St. Francis, 2014). The initial step in performance evaluation is to identify the job standards based on the essential functions as expected of the position. The basic responsibilities of a doorman at a hotel include: (1) greeting the guests at arrival and even during departure through the provision of courteous, warm, and prompt service; (2) assists in handling luggage of guests from any mode of transportation to endorsement to the Bellman; (3) provides appropriate responses to the quests regarding inquiries on hotel accommodations and facilities prior to endorsement to the front desk personnel. (1) Greet the guests as soon as they arrive within the vicinity of the hotel by stating: â€Å"Welcome to The Westin St. Francis. I am . I would be glad to be of service to you.† Likewise, when the guests are to depart from the hotel, the doorman should indicate: â€Å"Thank you so much for choosing The Westin St. Francis to serve you. We look forward to being of serve to you in the near future†. This standard would improve service quality through expressly communicating to the guests how welcome they are in the hotel and how the service personnel are glad to address their accommodation requirements. As such, the warm and prompt greeting would indicate high quality of service that could provide customer satisfaction through the provision on immediate response on various inquiries and concerns. As such, the measurable and observable components of this performance standard are as follows: greeting in a warm and courteous manner (quality measure); greeting in a prompt manner with assistance to the luggage (time measure); prompt greeting at arrival and departure (time measure). (2) Assists in handling luggage of guests from any mode of transportation to endorsement to the Bellman.

Effects and Importance of Osmosis

Effects and Importance of Osmosis Osmosis is the movement (natural) of a solvent, in the case of living organisms (water) selectively through a semi-permeable membrane down a water potential gradient. In other words it is the movement of water across a selectively semi- permeable membrane from an area of high water potential (low solute concentration) to an area of low water potential (high solute concentration) (Bowen, 2000). Semi-permeable membrane A membrane is partially (semi) permeable, if it will let in water molecules but not the molecules or ions dissolved in water (the solutes such as sugar molecules). Many cell membranes function in this manner. Osmosis is there for an important mechanism in the transport of fluids in living organisms (Bowen, 2000). Osmosis: Movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane from an area of low solute concentration to an area of high solute concentration. Key: Water, o Solute Osmosis is important in biological systems, as many biological membranes are semi-permeable. In general, these membranes are impermeable to organic solutes with large molecules, such as polysaccharides, while permeable to water and small, uncharged solutes. Permeability may depend on: solubility properties, charge, or chemistry, as well as Solute size. Water molecules travel through the plasma cell wall, tonoplast (vacuole) or protoplast in two ways, either by diffusing across the phospholipids bilayer directly, or via small transmembrane proteins similar to those in facilitated diffusion and in creating ion channels). Osmosis provides the primary means by which water is transported into and out of cells. The turgor pressure of a cell is largely maintained by osmosis, across the cell membrane, between the cell interior and its relatively hypotonic environment (Maton et al., 1997). The process of osmosis accounts for many functions that maintain life. In relation to blood cells, blood cells placed in pure distilled water will swell and burst. If these cells are placed in a Hyper osmotic (hypertonic) solution, i.e., the solution has more dissolved particles, salts, sugar, etc., than is in the cells, they will shrivel up (a process called crenation in the case of blood cells). The energy that drives the process of osmosis is called osmotic pressure. In animal (human beings included), the red blood cells are very important to the survival of the organism because they transport oxygen from the gills, skin, or lungs to the cells of the various tissues (muscles, nerves, etc.). These blood cells are transported in a fluid (serum) that has approximately the same salt content as sea water. Effects of Osmosis on Red Blood Cells Red blood cells as in all animal cells dont have cell walls. In cases of hypotonic solutions, red blood cells will swell up and burst (explode) .when the cell is in danger of bursting due to accumulation of too much water in it, contractile vacuoles will pump out the water out of the cell to prevent it from bursting. In hypertonic solutions, water will diffuse out of the cell due to osmosis and the cell shrinks. For the red blood cell to stay in its normal condition, its always surrounded by isotonic solution. If the concentration of the cells cytoplasm is lower then medium (the medium is hypotonic) surrounding the cell, then osmosis will result by the cell gaining water, hence the cell will swell up and burst. If the concentration of the water inside the cell is the same as that outside the cell (the medium is isotonic solution), there exists a dynamic equilibrium, meaning the number of cells getting in and leaving the cells is the same hence the cell will retain its original size. The red blood cell retains its shape because of the isotonic nature of the plasma. If the water concentration inside the cell is higher than that of the medium (the media is a hypertonic solution), hence the number of molecules diffusing out will be more than that entering, and the cell will shrink. The kidneys in the human body provide the necessary regulatory mechanism for the blood plasma and the concentration of water and salt removed from the blood by the kidneys, which is controlled by the hypothalamus. This process of regulating the salty and the mineral salts in the blood is called osmoregulation. Osmosis and diffusion a have related concepts: Both processes involve the movement of materials from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. Diffusion involves the movement of chemical molecules from a low concentration to a higher concentration whereas osmosis involves the movement of water molecules from a high to low concentration via a semi permeable membrane. Importance of Osmosis in the animal/human body Salts and minerals are transferred from water through osmosis. Osmosis transfers water through the plasma membrane (which is selective and semi permeable) of the cell. It manages the mixing of water, glucose and salts in the body cells, this is important, otherwise the cells would loose too much water and eventually die. Hence osmosis plays an important role in keeping the cells alive. Osmosis plays an important role in the functioning of the kidneys, it is also important in the helping to transfer water and various nutrients between the blood and fluid of the cells. People who suffer from kidney diseases depend in kidney machines to remove waste substances (products from their blood, such machines use a process called dialysis, which is similar to the process of osmosis. Salt water fish constantly consume a lot of water, which is released to the environment through osmosis, while fresh water fish dont drink water because their skin is responsible to absorbing water. Diffusion of Potassium Permanganate (KMnO4) Diffusion is the movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration across a permeable membrane as a result of kinetic energy of random motion. It is a random movement of molecules which is directional from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration until equilibrium is achieved. Molecules are in a constant state of motion. For example, if you dissolve KMnO4 in water so that the concentration is initially higher in one part of the water that another, diffusion will occur so that there is a net movement of KMnO4 from area if high concentration to an area of lower concentration. However, if the KMnO4 molecules have a complete even and random distribution through out the water, there will be no movement of KMnO4 in any direction. The rate of diffusion will be affected by properties of: The cell The diffusing molecule Surrounding solution The rate of diffusion increases as the concentration gradient increases. When the concentration of molecules outside the cells is very high, relative to the internal concentration, the rate of diffusion will also be high. If the internal concentration are the same (low concentration gradient), the rate of diffusion will be low.

What are some of the stereotypic traits typically assigned to being feminine and to being masculine?

Men and women are being stereotyped as polygamous and polyandra. Transcending from animal to human behaviour, many would rather conclude that even man are not naturally inclined to be monogamous. Like the primates, two forms are readily observable in society. Of the two types of marriage systems, polygamy (plural marriage) has been found to be the most common throughout history than its opposite form of monogamy.Polygamy has taken two forms: polyandra, in which a wife has two or more husbands; and polygyny, in which a man has two or more wives. This second form of plural marriage has been much more common, historically, than the first, and still is, although polyandry still persisted towards the early 20th century in parts of India, on the high plateau of Tibet, and in other scattered localities. Primary reason for its practice mainly falls out of necessity.Sustenance depends from a limited number of farmland and the careful balancing of population against food reserves. Each family therefore, avoids dividing its meagre tillage in ever-diminishing lots among its progeny by having the younger sons share the wife of the eldest son. Not only does this practice reduce the number of children in each generation, and keep each property permanently within the family, it has some other curious results.Polyandry, for some reason not wholly accounted for by anthropologists, reduces the fertility of wives, and produces an abnormal ratio of male to female births. Custom obliges them to treat each husband with equal favour, but it often happens that a woman of many husbands may prefer one brother to all the others. Due to contacts with dwellers outside their village, women are feeling the stigma of polyandra. More women from this system then, are beginning to revolt and are asserting their own demands for monogamy.